Common Names: Chili pepper, chilli pepper, hot pepper, sweet pepper, bell pepper, paprika, pimiento, pimiento pepper
Local Names : Tashshi, tattasai (Hausa, Nigeria), Ose oyinbo (Yoruba, Nigeria)
Species ID: NMP-300| wfo-0001019983

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Tracheophytes

Clade: Angiosperms

Clade: Eudicots

Order: Solanales

Family: Solanaceae

Genus: Capsicum

Species: Capsicum annuum L.

synonyms: 

Capsicum annuum is an annual to short-lived perennial subshrub, often cultivated as an annual in temperate and tropical agriculture. It is highly polymorphic due to long-term domestication and modern breeding, spanning sweet bell peppers, paprika types, and diverse pungent chili forms (POWO, n.d.; Kraft et al., 2014).

·       Habit: Herb to subshrub; commonly 0.3–1.5 m in cultivation, potentially larger in frost-free conditions (POWO, n.d.).

·       Leaves: Simple, entire, ovate to lanceolate, alternate; size and pubescence vary strongly among landraces and cultivars.

·       Flowers: Typically solitary, axillary, usually white; corolla may show subtle spotting in some forms; bisexual and insect-pollinated.

·       Fruit: Botanical berry with extreme variation in size (small bird peppers to large bells), shape (elongate, conical, blocky), and color (green, yellow, orange, red, purple/brown in some cultivars) (POWO, n.d.).

·       Pungency determinant: Capsaicin and related capsaicinoids accumulate mainly in placental tissues of pungent cultivars; sweet cultivars are characterized by very low or absent capsaicinoids (Fattori et al., 2016).

Capsicum annuum is native to the Americas and is now cultivated globally as both a vegetable and a spice crop. Its modern distribution reflects widespread cultivation and frequent local naturalization or casual escape (POWO, n.d.; GBIF, n.d.).

·       Native range: Southern United States to Brazil and the Caribbean, as synthesized in Plants of the World Online (POWO, n.d.).

·       Domestication center and history: Multi-method evidence (species distribution modeling and paleobiolinguistics) supports an origin of domesticated C. annuum in Mexico, with subsequent diversification and spread (Kraft et al., 2014).

·       Current distribution: Worldwide cultivation across temperate-to-tropical regions; locally naturalized populations recorded in biodiversity occurrence systems (GBIF, n.d.).

·       Habitat: Primarily cultivated in warm, sunny environments with well-drained soils; also occurs as a garden escape near settlements and disturbed habitats (POWO, n.d.; GBIF, n.d.).

Across many cultures, Capsicum annuum sits on a food–medicine continuum: fruits are consumed for flavor and perceived “warming” effects and are also used externally as counterirritants for musculoskeletal discomfort. Modern regulatory syntheses emphasize that safety and therapeutic outcomes depend on preparation, dose, exposure time, and cultivar chemistry (EMA, n.d.; EMA, 2015).

·       Topical counterirritant for pain: Traditional use of pepper preparations on painful areas aligns with clinical and regulatory recognition of capsicum preparations for relief of muscle pain such as low back pain (EMA, n.d.).

·       Respiratory and “cold” symptoms: In several traditions, hot pepper ingestion is used to promote sweating and perceived decongestion, typically as part of hot foods or drinks; these practices are commonly discussed within food–medicine frameworks (Catalfamo et al., 2022).

·       Gastrointestinal complaints: Traditional narratives include use for “stomach upset” or ulcer-like conditions; mechanistic and experimental literature has examined gastroprotective effects of capsaicin under specific conditions (Satyanarayana, 2006; Mendivil et al., 2019).

·       Northern Uganda: A cross-sectional ethnobotanical survey recorded Capsicum annuum among medicinal plants used locally, including for malaria and ulcer-related complaints, with preparations involving leaves and fruits in household remedies (Gum et al., 2024).

Ethnopharmacological evidence for Capsicum annuum includes clinical evaluation of capsaicin-containing topical products for pain, experimental studies on gastrointestinal inflammation models, and laboratory studies exploring antimicrobial effects of pepper extracts. The strongest human evidence relates to topical analgesia, while other domains remain more preliminary and preparation-dependent (Derry et al., 2017; Simpson et al., 2017).

·       Analgesic and pain-modulating effects: Capsaicin is a TRPV1 agonist on nociceptive neurons; after initial activation (burning), repeated or sustained exposure can produce desensitization and reduced pain signaling, forming the mechanistic basis for topical use (Fattori et al., 2016). A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy evaluated a single application of an 8% capsaicin patch over 12 weeks (Simpson et al., 2017). A Cochrane review concluded that high-concentration topical capsaicin (8%) provides more moderate to substantial pain relief than control in selected chronic neuropathic pain conditions, though the proportion benefiting is limited and evidence quality varies by condition (Derry et al., 2017). A systematic review focusing on postherpetic neuralgia similarly supports topical capsaicin as a potentially effective option for some patients (Yong et al., 2017).

·       Gastric mucosal protection and inflammation modulation: A comprehensive review argues that capsaicin can support gastric mucosal defense via effects on acid secretion, mucus/alkali secretion, and mucosal blood flow, reframing chili exposure as potentially protective under certain contexts rather than uniformly ulcerogenic (Satyanarayana, 2006). In an experimental gastritis model, capsaicin consumption was associated with gastric mucosal protection and downregulation of inflammatory mediators including proinflammatory cytokines and COX-2 in gastric tissue (Mendivil et al., 2019).

·       Antibacterial activity and antimicrobial: Laboratory studies demonstrate antibacterial activity of C. annuum fruit extracts against foodborne or opportunistic pathogens under in vitro conditions, with activity depending on extraction solvent and concentration. For example, bell pepper extracts showed inhibitory effects against multiple bacterial species, with methanolic extracts often yielding stronger activity than aqueous preparations (Koffi-Nevry et al., 2012).

·       Economic and dietary importance: C. annuum is among the world’s most important vegetable and spice crops, with major roles in fresh markets (sweet peppers) and processed spice systems (paprika and dried chili products) (POWO, n.d.).

·       Domestication and diversity: Domestication in Mexico and subsequent spread produced extensive morphological and chemical diversity, which explains broad variation in pungency, color, and uses across landraces and modern cultivars (Kraft et al., 2014).

·       Regulatory synthesis: EMA monographs and assessment reports link long-standing topical use with mechanistic and clinical evidence while emphasizing controlled duration and adult-only use (EMA, n.d.; EMA, 2015).

• Aguilar-Meléndez, A., Azurdia, C., Cerén-López, J., Menjívar, J., & Contreras, A. (2020). Capsicum annuum (amended version of 2019 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, e.T100895534A172969027. https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/100895534/172969027

• Catalfamo LM, Marrone G, Basilicata M, Vivarini I, Paolino V, Della-Morte D, De Ponte FS, Di Daniele F, Quattrone D, De Rinaldis D, Bollero P, Di Daniele N, Noce A. The Utility of Capsicum annuum L. in Internal Medicine and In Dentistry: A Comprehensive Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Sep 6;19(18):11187. doi: 10.3390/ijerph191811187. PMID: 36141454; PMCID: PMC9517535.

• Derry, S., Rice, A. S. C., Cole, P., Tan, T., & Moore, R. A. (2017). Topical capsaicin (high concentration) for chronic neuropathic pain in adults. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, (1), CD007393. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007393.pub4

• European Medicines Agency. (2015). Final assessment report on Capsicum annuum L. var. minimum (Miller) Heiser and small fruited varieties of Capsicum frutescens L., fructus (EMA/HMPC/674138/2013). https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/documents/herbal-report/final-assessment-report-capsicum-annuum-l-var-minimum-miller-heiser-and-small-fruited-varieties-capsicum-frutescens-l-fructus_en.pdf

• European Medicines Agency. (n.d.). Capsici fructus (herbal medicinal product page). https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/herbal/capsici-fructus

• GBIF. (n.d.). Capsicum annuum L. (GBIF Backbone Taxonomy; species page). https://www.gbif.org/species/2932944

• Gum, B., Opoke, R., Akwongo, B., Oloya, B., Omony, J. B., Opiro, R., Andama, M., Anywar, G., & Malinga, G. M. (2024). An ethnobotanical survey of plant species used for medicinal purposes in Amuru district, northern Uganda. Ethnobotany Research and Applications, 29, 1–17. https://ethnobotanyjournal.org/index.php/era/article/view/5995

• International Journal of Toxicology. (2007). Final report on the safety assessment of Capsicum annuum extract, Capsicum annuum fruit extract, Capsicum annuum resin, Capsicum annuum fruit powder, Capsicum frutescens fruit, Capsicum frutescens fruit extract, Capsicum frutescens resin, and capsaicin. International Journal of Toxicology, 26(Suppl 1), 3–106.

• Koffi-Nevry, R., Kouassi, K. C., Zinzerdorf, Y. N., Koussémon, M., & Yao, G. L. (2012). Antibacterial activity of two bell pepper extracts: Capsicum annuum L. and Capsicum frutescens. International Journal of Food Properties, 15, 961–971.

• Kraft, K. H., Brown, C. H., Nabhan, G. P., Luedeling, E., Ruiz, J. d. J. L., d’Eeckenbrugge, G. C., Hijmans, R. J., & Gepts, P. (2014). Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(17), 6165–6170. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1308933111

• Mendivil, E. J., Sandoval-Rodriguez, A., Meza-Ríos, A., Zuñiga-Ramos, L., Dominguez-Rosales, A., Vazquez-Del Mercado, M., ... & Armendariz-Borunda, J. (2019). Capsaicin induces a protective effect on gastric mucosa along with decreased expression of inflammatory molecules in a gastritis model. Journal of Functional Foods, 59, 345-351.

• National Pesticide Information Center. (n.d.). Capsaicin fact sheet. Oregon State University. https://npic.orst.edu/factsheets/capgen.html

• NCBI. (n.d.). Capsicum annuum (Taxonomy ID: 4072). National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/datasets/taxonomy/4072/

• Plants of the World Online. (n.d.). Capsicum annuum L. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316944-2

• Satyanarayana, M. N. (2006). Capsaicin and gastric ulcers. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 46(4), 275–328.

• Simpson, D. M., Robinson-Papp, J., Van, J., Stoker, M., Jacobs, H., Snijder, R. J., & …. (2017). Capsaicin 8% patch in painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Pain, 158(1), 42–53.

• Yong, Y. L., Tan, L. T. H., Ming, L. C., & ….. (2017). The effectiveness and safety of topical capsaicin in postherpetic neuralgia: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 7, 538.

• Plants of the World Online: Capsicum annuum

• NCBI Taxonomy: Capsicum annuum (txid4072)

• IUCN Red List: Capsicum annuum

• Tetradecanoic acid methyl ester
• Tetradecanoic acid
• n-Tetradecane
• Heptadecane
• n-Octadecane
• Hexadecanoic acid, 15-methyl, methyl ester
• Docosane
• 3,7-dimethylnonane

Murtala Muhammad, Etal. (2023). Phytochemical analysis of Nigerian medicinal plants. NMPP-DB Project, Department of Biochemistry, Kano University of Science and Technology, Wudil